Humans & The Environment

Human health and safety are directly impacted by our environment; from the air we breathe, the water that we depend upon, and the risks that we take when interacting with our natural environment.

Air pollution is a mix of hazardous substances from both human-made and natural sources. Human-made air pollution primarily results from vehicle emissions, fuel oils, natural gas, manufacturing and power generation by-products, and chemical production fumes. Such as smoke from wildfires, ash and gases from volcanic eruptions, and gases like methane from decomposing organic matter are examples of natural air pollutants. Air pollution increases the risk of respiratory infections, heart disease, stroke, and lung cancer, and more severely affects people who are already ill. People's health risks from air pollution vary widely depending on age, location, underlying health, and other factors.

Humans are also at risk from various diseases transmitted by animals and insects in our natural environment. A zoonotic disease is any disease that can be passed between animals and people.  Dutchess County Behavioral & Community Health estimates that 60% of infectious diseases are zoonotic. These diseases include tick-borne and mosquito-borne diseases that have and will continue to cause serious public health impacts on Dutchess County.

Air Quality & Pollution  

The major air pollutants in Dutchess County are ground-level ozone, particulate matter and acid deposition.  Because some of these pollutants are transported across state and county lines, the federal Clean Air Act was enacted to control these pollutants at the state and federal geographic scale.  It’s important to remember that some pollutants measured in Dutchess County are not emitted here.  Likewise, some pollutants emitted in Dutchess County affect downwind areas outside of Dutchess County.

The principle statutory authority for controlling air pollution at the Federal and State level is contained in the Clean Air Act (CAA), which was enacted by Congress and signed into law in 1970.  Although subsequently amended, the core provisions of the 1970 Clean Air Act are still in effect.In Section 109 of the law, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is directed to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six specific criteria pollutants:

1. Carbon Monoxide
2. Lead
3. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
4. Ozone (or smog)
5. Particulate Matter
6. Sulfur Dioxide (SO₂)

For each of the six criteria pollutants, NAAQs are set by EPA at a level designed to protect public health with an adequate margin of safety. One set of limits, the primary standard, protects health.  Another set of limits, the secondary standard, is intended to prevent environmental and property damage [11].

Under section 110 of the Clean Air Act, each state is required to submit a “State Implementation Plan,” commonly known as the “SIP” to the EPA, which details how the state will implement, maintain, and enforce the primary and secondary NAAQS in each air quality control region within the State [12]. As the regulatory authority for New York State, the NYS Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), working with local authorities, drafts the SIPs for submission to the EPA to meet the requirements of the Clean Air Act in New York State.

Upon passage of the CAA Amendments of 1990, several changes were put in place, including new designation of areas of the country not meeting the NAAQS for each criteria pollutant, also known as Areas of Non-Attainment.  Under the CAA, a geographic area that meets or does better than the primary standard is called an Attainment Area; areas that do not meet the primary standard are called Non-Attainment Areas [13].  For areas that are in Non-Attainment for any one of the six NAAQS for criteria pollutants, Title 1 of the 1990 CAA Amendments imposes deadlines for meeting the NAAQS that vary with the severity of pollution problems, and requires states to submit revised SIPs – which require that the states make “measurable progress” in meeting the NAAQS.  

Ozone 

One of the most critical criteria pollutants, ground level ozone, is the main harmful component of smog.  It is a highly reactive gas that consists of 3 oxygen atoms.  Ozone is not emitted directly but is formed through chemical reactions between precursor emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) in the presence of sunlight.  These reactions are stimulated by sunlight and high temperature, which is why peak ozone levels occur during summer and the warmest period of the day.  The VOC and NOx precursors to ozone are produced by the combination of pollutants from many sources, including smokestacks, cars, paints, and solvents. According to the EPA, when a car burns gasoline, releasing exhaust fumes, or a painter paints a house, smog-forming pollutants rise into the sky [14].

The initial NAAQS for ozone was a maximum 1-hour average not to exceed 0.12 parts per million (ppm) [15]. In 1997, the EPA established a new NAAQS for ozone. To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour average ozone concentrations measured at each monitor within an area over each year must not exceed 0.08 ppm.  In May 2008, that standard was lowered from 0.08 ppm to 0.075 ppm.  Most recently, the NAAQS were revised in 2015 and were retained in 2020. The existing standards are 0.070 ppm, as the fourth-highest daily maximum 8-hour concentration, averaged across three consecutive years [16]. Standards are periodically changed because the Clean Air Act requires the EPA to review and revise standards as new information develops about public health, safety, and environmental and property effects of criteria pollutants.    

The United States EPA and New York State DEC maintain a network of air quality monitoring for the United States and New York State, respectively.  According to EPA, the EPA’s ambient air quality monitoring program is carried out by State and local agencies [17]. The New York State DEC measures air pollutants at more than 80 sites across the state, using continuous and/or manual instrumentation, as part of the federally-mandated National Air Monitoring Stations Network [18]. Continuous air quality monitoring of DEC’s Region 3 - the Hudson Valley - occurs at several sites, including White Plains in Westchester County, Mt. Ninham in Putnam County, Valley Central in Orange County, and a site in Rockland County.  The only monitoring station in Dutchess County is site #132801, which is maintained at the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies in Millbrook, NY.  The DEC’s Division of Air Resources maintains accurate hourly, daily, monthly and yearly air quality data and forecasting, and information is available from the NYS DEC website. According to the DEC, in 2022, compliance with the existing NAAQS for ozone was met at the Millbrook station in Dutchess County (Table 8).

Table 8: 4th Highest Daily Maximum 8-Hour Average (not to exceed an avg of 0.070 ppm during the last 3 years) 

Site	2020	2021	2022	Mean 4th Max	Exceeds the NAAQS
Millbrook	0.059	0.061	0.063	0.061	No.
Valley Central	0.059	0.059	0.053	0.057	No
White Plains	0.067	0.071	0.066	0.068	No
Mt Ninham	0.058	0.063	0.064	0.062	No
Rockland	0.061	0.064	0.062	0.062	No

  Particulate Matter  

Particulate Matter (PM) includes dust, dirt, soot, smoke and liquid droplets.  It can be formed by condensation or transformation of gases.  There are two size classifications for particulates: 10 microns (PM10), which are particles that are less than 10 microns in size and 2.5 microns (PM2.5), which are particles that are less than 2.5 microns in size.  The PM2.5 size class causes decreased lung function that can have serious effects on individuals with asthma, bronchitis or other airway diseases. PM2.5 is most commonly the result of combustion, including fossil fuel burning, and transformation of gases such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds. The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM2.5 include a 24-hour average and annual average, which are not to exceed 35 and 15 µg/m3, respectively.

PM2.5 is not currently monitored in Dutchess County.  The closest monitoring sites are Newburgh and Albany. From 2020 through 2022, the three-year average of annual means for fine inhalable particulates was 6.1, in compliance with primary and secondary NAAQS [18]. Although Dutchess County is currently within compliance for PM2.5, development and vehicular travel should be controlled to ensure that it remains in compliance.

Particulate matter pollution represents a main component of wildfire smoke and is the main public health threat when experiencing the effects of wildfires. During a wildfire or other combustion-related activities, particle pollution can be visible to the human eye because concentrations of particles are substantially increased in the air. There is evidence of an increase in the risk of both cardiovascular and respiratory-related effects in response to wildfire smoke exposure, particularly as the intensity of wildfire smoke increases [19]. Dutchess County experienced this throughout June of 2023 as smoke was carried by winds from Canadian wildfires. Air quality reached unhealthy levels, and residents were advised to stay indoors and limit rigorous activities outdoors.

Air Quality Index 

The Air Quality Index (AQI) is an index that illustrates the level of each of the criteria pollutants.  For Dutchess County, AQI’s for ozone and PM2.5 are forecast on a daily basis by the NYS DEC.  The AQI was created as an easy way to correlate levels of different pollutants to one scale; the higher the AQI value, the greater the health concern. When levels of ozone and/or PM2.5 are forecast to exceed an AQI value of 100, an Air Quality Health Advisory is issued alerting sensitive groups to take the necessary precautions. AQI alerts are reported via media outlets and weather forecasting facilities. See the additional resources section for real-time air quality data and forecasts for the Hudson Valley.  

Acid Precipitation  

Acid precipitation refers to rain, snow or ice that is more acidic than what is normal for a given area.  In the northeastern United States, normal precipitation pH is about 5.2.  The pH scale is a measure of acidity ranging from 0 to 14, with pH 7 being neutral, pH less than 7 is acidic, and pH greater than 7 is basic.  The pH scale is logarithmic, which means that each pH unit is 10 times that of its neighbor. A solution with pH 4 is 10 times more acidity than a solution with pH 5.

Acid precipitation most commonly forms from sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx).  Most SO₂ is emitted by coal burning power plants while NOx most commonly comes from car exhaust and other industrial processes as well as coal burning.  In the atmosphere, the SO₂ and NOx transform to sulfate (SO₄^2-) and nitrate (NO₃^-) which combine with hydrogen ions (H+) to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) and nitric acid (HNO₃).  Acid precipitation is more correctly called acid deposition.  There are 2 forms of acid deposition: wet deposition, which is deposition in the form of rain, snow or ice, and dry deposition, which is deposition in the form of gases or particles.  By far, most acid deposition falls as wet deposition.  H₂SO₄ is the most important component of acid deposition although HNO₃ is also important.  Because the prevailing wind direction for Dutchess County is southwest, as it is for most of the northeastern US, we are upwind of the midsection of the country where many coal burning power plants are. Our air and precipitation largely originate in areas with high emissions of the acid deposition precursor SO₂.

Acid deposition and other pollutants harm natural ecosystems and threaten biological diversity.  Acid deposition acidifies soils, lakes and streams and enhances the process that makes toxic mercury (another pollutant emitted during the burning of coal) available to organisms.  Acid deposition also enhances the mobilization of toxic aluminum from soils to tree roots, increases leaching of sulfate and nitrate to soils and surface waters and promotes the loss of important buffering nutrients from soils.  Globally, most water bodies became increasingly acidic from the 1970s until early this century [20]. In aquatic systems, aluminum can kill fish and other aquatic organisms, reducing fish species richness.  The increased acidity in lakes and other surface waters can reduce ecosystem productivity.

Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) mandates requirements for the control of acid deposition.  The CAAA set a goal of reducing annual SO₂ emissions by 10 million tons below 1980 levels. To achieve these reductions, the law required a two-phase tightening of the restrictions placed on the highest emitting fossil fuel-fired power plants.  Phase I began in 1995 and Phase II began in the year 2000.  The Act also called for a 2-million-ton reduction in NOx emissions by the year 2000.  Since the Clean Air Act amendments of 1990, hydrogen deposition has decreased dramatically in New York State and elsewhere, and pH has increased, demonstrating the success of environmental regulation targeted at sources of acid rain [21].

Water Quality & Pollution 

The rich hydrology of Dutchess County has historically provided adequate water to meet community needs. However, human interactions with the land introduce threats to all of the county’s water resources through changes in surface water runoff, the reduction of groundwater infiltration, water contamination, and soil erosion. In many ways, climate change is exacerbating these threats and creating new stresses.

Surface Water

As human demands for water increase or groundwater recharge decreases, there is the potential for inadequate flow of water in streams during dry periods. Low flows can lead to high water temperatures, inadequate dissolved oxygen levels, and restrictions on movements of fish and other aquatic organisms. Efforts to establish minimal environmental flows have developed procedures to determine how much water must be left in a channel to ensure good habitat value and ecological functioning.

Groundwater

Non-point source contaminant sources pose a new challenge to communities and regulators. Where wells and septic systems are in use, well water quality can suffer if not buffered by adequate recharge. The recharge rates presented in Dutchess County Aquifer Recharge Rates & Sustainable Septic System Density study have been used to recommend minimum average parcel sizes for homes using individual wells and septic systems. Analysis of the 250 domestic well water samples discussed above suggests that nitrate concentrations detected in groundwater wells show a greater incidence of higher levels when near clusters of septic systems.

Sodium and chloride concentrations recorded in the 250 domestic well samples also can be higher more often; mostly likely due to the proximity of the parcels to roads. USGS analysis of sewered and unsewered watersheds in Putnam and Westchester Counties verified that there were few differences in sodium chloride concentrations in groundwater between watersheds with or without septic systems, suggesting that road salt rather than water softener discharges to septic systems are the dominant source of salt in groundwater.

Dutchess County’s aquifers are vulnerable to contamination from sources other than septic systems and roads, including a host of regulated and some remaining unregulated land-use practices. Traditional sources of recognized groundwater contamination such as landfills, leaking petroleum or chemical storage tanks, both accidental and intentional illegal discharges, and heavy uses of fertilizers continue to contribute to the risk of aquifer contamination.

Other sanitary waste components such as pharmaceutical residues and personal care chemicals may also be present in groundwater near septic systems. Recommended parcel sizes, based on hydrologic soil group and aquifer recharge ensure a greater measure of dilution of such discharges from surrounding unimpacted groundwater but desirable contaminant dilution ratios have not been developed since no human health or aquatic health standards are available.

Many cases of groundwater pollution have appeared in recent years. The most common pollutants fall into distinct categories:

• road de-icing salts (sodium chloride) particularly at bottoms of hills or ends of cul-de-sacs where salt residues can accumulate as a result of heavy application or plowing or within settlement areas where road networks are particularly dense
• organic solvents (trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, or carbon tetrachloride) from illegal dump sites, industrial sites, and sometimes from household products
• fertilizers
• petroleum products (gasoline and heating fuel) from spills, leaking tanks, and pavement runoff
• septic system discharges

Wetlands

As development pressures increase, corresponding pressures to fill, drain, or build in wetlands also increase. Wetlands are not suitable locations for landfills, basements, septic systems, or other structures and uses that function poorly in wet soils or destroy natural wetland functions.

Concern about the destruction of wetland resources led to the passage of the New York State Freshwater Wetlands Act in 1975. This act requires permits for all non-agricultural activities that could change the quality of wetlands 12.4 acres or larger and smaller wetlands of unusual local importance. It also requires the State Department of Environmental Conservation to inventory and evaluate the wetlands of the state. The act applies to 4.4 percent of Dutchess County and approximately 70 percent of the county’s total wetland acreage.

Water and Climate Change

A changing climate is predicted to affect the quantity, quality, and habitat suitability of surface water. The intensity of annual precipitation is expected to increase in the coming years, with implications for water resources. More detailed information can be found in the Climate Change section of the NRI.

Flooding hazards are predicted to increase as climate conditions continue to change. Areas indicated in the Dutchess County Environmental Mapper. as 100-year floodplains will be in particular risk, but other areas may be affected as flooding in any area will depend on the intensity and timing of precipitation events. Historically, large floods in the county have been known to damage infrastructure, destroy crops and wash away agricultural soils, carry pollutants and large volumes of sediments into streams. Much of the water volume from these large events will run off quickly into streams and be unavailable for recharging groundwater.

Flood dynamics play a large role in determining the shape, or morphology, of stream channels and the hazards associated with land uses on the banks and in the floodplain. For example, applications for stream disturbance permits (from New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYS DEC)) typically increase following floods as landowners and municipalities attempt to repair damage caused by flooding.

More extended and more frequent droughts are also predicted, and are likely to affect public water supplies, private drinking water wells, and farm ponds for watering livestock, as well as streams, other natural habitats, and native plants and animals. More extreme floods and droughts, as well as increases in water temperatures, are likely to adversely impact populations of trout and other sensitive stream organisms that rely on cool, clear streams and unsilted stream substrates.

Animal to Human Diseases 

Tick-borne Diseases 

Tick-borne diseases are transmitted to humans by tick bites. Diseases transmitted by ticks can include Lyme disease, anaplasmosis/ehrlichiosis, babesiosis, Powassan disease, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and tick paralysis. The symptoms of these diseases vary from mild to severe infections and in some cases require hospitalization. Different species of ticks can transmit different pathogens, so identifying the species of tick that bit you is important. Below is more information about which tick vectors which disease, paired with fact sheets with more information about each illness.

Lyme disease

A bacterial infection caused by the bite of an infected deer tick.

Ticks & Lyme Disease Color Brochure La Garrapata La Enfermedad de Lyme Lyme Disease Fact Sheet (tick-borne borreliosis, Lyme arthritis) Anaplasmosis and Erhlichioisis Tick-borne diseases caused by two different bacteria transmitted by the bite of a tick. The lone star tick causes erhlichiosis and the deer tick causes anaplasmosis. Anaplasmosis and Ehrlichiosis Anaplasmosis (cdc.gov) Ehrlichiosis (cdc.gov) Babesiosis A rare, disease caused by various types of microscopic parasites from the bite of an infected deer tick. Babesiosis Babesiosis (cdc.gov) Powassan virus disease A rare, but often serious disease caused by a virus that is spread by the bite of infected ticks Powassan Virus (POW) Powassan Virus (CDC) Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever A rare disease caused by the bite of an infected American dog tick. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (tick-borne typhus fever) Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (cdc.gov) On a statewide and national level, Dutchess County is a consistent leader in Lyme disease rates. From 2002 to 2006, Dutchess County led the nation in reported Lyme cases [22]. While the county has fallen in statewide ranking in more recent years, it is believed that the total cases reported by the CSC are an underrepresentation of the true amount of Lyme cases due to reporting estimates and misdiagnosis of the disease. Experts believe that the best way to avoid tickborne illness is to prevent tick bites. Dutchess County Department of Behavioral & Community Health advises that wooded areas or forests support higher densities of ticks than more open areas like lawns. Deciduous forests with ground cover also support higher densities than coniferous forests. More fragmented forests have also been found to have higher densities than larger, continuous forest [23] Residential areas also support ticks, as they have the potential to include several different microhabitats, like wooded areas, unmaintained edges of wooded areas, ornamental gardens, and lawns. Lawns are least likely to have high densities of ticks. In addition to avoiding the places where ticks are commonly found, measures can be taken to reduce the risk of tick bites. Using an EPA-registered insect repellent, treating shoes and outdoor clothing with permethrin, frequently checking your body for ticks, and drying clothing on high heat for 30 minutes when returning from the outdoors are all strategies recommended by the Dutchess County Department of Behavioral & Community Health [24]. Studies have shown that climate change has contributed to the expansion of ticks’ range, as the life cycle of ticks is strongly dependent on temperature. As the temperatures warm, the range of suitable tick habitats increases. Ticks are also much more active when temperatures are above 45 degrees Fahrenheit with at least 85% humidity [25].   Mosquito-borne Diseases  There are several diseases that can be transmitted by mosquitoes, like West Nile virus and Eastern Equine Encephalitis. Those who travel to other countries risk other mosquito-borne illnesses like Dengue Fever, Chikungunya, Malaria, and Zika [26]. Symptoms of these diseases can range from mild to severe. More serious infections can require hospitalization and could result in death. Preventing bites by minimizing exposure and taking steps to protect yourself is the best defense against mosquito-borne diseases. Using insect repellent that contains DEET or picaridin, wearing long pants, sleeves, socks, and shoes when outdoors or when mosquitoes are active, and maintaining properties to eliminate stagnant water are all measures that you can take to prevent mosquito bites [26]. Similar to ticks, warmer temperatures caused by a changing climate can accelerate the rate of bites, the development, and incubation of disease for mosquitos. Climate change also impacts the timing of bird migration and breeding patterns, which may also contribute to the movement of viruses long-range [27]. Rabies & Other Zoonotics Rabies is a viral disease affecting the central nervous system. It is transmitted from infected mammals to other mammals and humans and is invariably fatal once symptoms appear.  Fortunately, only a few human cases are reported each year in the United States. Rabies is most often seen among wild animals such as raccoons, bats, skunks and foxes, but any mammal can be infected with rabies. Pets and livestock can get rabies if they are not vaccinated to protect them against infection. Among domestic animals, cats are most frequently diagnosed with rabies in New York State [28]. Some animals almost never get rabies. These include rabbits and small rodents such as squirrels, chipmunks, rats, mice, guinea pigs, gerbils and hamsters. It is possible for these animals to get rabies, but only in rare circumstances, such as if they are attacked but not killed by a rabid animal. Reptiles (such as lizards and snakes), amphibians (like frogs), birds, fish and insects do not get or carry rabies. People usually get exposed to the rabies virus when an infected animal bites them. Exposure may also occur if saliva from a rabid animal enters an open cut or mucous membrane (eyes, nose, or mouth). Anyone who may have had an exposure to rabies should wash any wounds thoroughly with soap and water and seek medical attention immediately. All animal bites, even if minor, should be reported to the Dutchess County Department of Behavioral & Community Health.